1) Field
Embodiments of the invention are in the field of X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) Analysis and, in particular, systems and methods for characterizing films by XPS.
2) Description of Related Art
X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) is a quantitative spectroscopic technique that measures the elemental composition, empirical formula, chemical state and electronic state of the elements that exist within a material. XPS spectra may be obtained by irradiating a material with a beam of X-rays while simultaneously measuring the kinetic energy and number of electrons that escape from the top, e.g., 1 to 10 nm of the material being analyzed. XPS analysis commonly employs monochromatic aluminum Kα (AlKα) X-rays, which may be generated by bombarding an aluminum anode surface with a focused electron beam. A fraction of the generated AlKα X-rays is then intercepted by a focusing monochromator and a narrow X-ray energy band is focused onto the analysis site on a sample surface. The X-ray flux of the AlKα X-rays at the sample surface depends on the electron beam current, the thickness and integrity of the aluminum anode surface, and crystal quality, size, and stability of the monochromator.
X-ray fluorescence (XRF) is the emission of characteristic “secondary” (or fluorescent) X-rays from a material that has been excited by bombarding with higher energy X-rays or gamma rays. The phenomenon is widely used for elemental analysis and chemical analysis, particularly in the investigation of metals, glass, ceramics and building materials, and for research in geochemistry, forensic science and archaeology.
XPS analysis and XRF analysis each have their own advantages and drawbacks as techniques for sample characterization. Thus, advances are needed in analyses based on XPS and/or XRF detection.